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Mathematics Notes

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Mathematics Notes

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Mathematics Notes: Optimized for Effective Learning

Comprehensive Calculus Notes:

Our online Mathematics notes offer a comprehensive coverage of Calculus, ensuring a deep understanding of concepts like derivatives, integrals, and limits. These notes facilitate active learning and foster problem-solving skills.

Statistical Insights:

Our online Statistics notes equip students with the knowledge needed to analyze and interpret data effectively.

.Component and Defination of Mathematical Terms:

1.Sets
2.Complex Numbers
3.Quadratic Equations
3.Systems of Two Equations
4.Matrices

Determinants and Inverse Matrices

Groups

Sequence and Series

Permutations and Combinations

Introduction to Probability

Mathematical Induction

The Binomial Theorem

Fundamental Trigonometry

Trigonometric Identities

Trigonometric Functions

Solutions of Triangles

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

and Trigonometric equations

Orthogonal Trajectory

SETS

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. The objects in a set are called elements or members of the set. Sets usually denote by capital letters, and we list their elements within curly braces, like this: A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.

Definition:

A set is a collection of distinct elements, typically written as: where are the elements of the set . If an element belongs to a set, we say it is a member of the set, and this is denoted by if $x$ is an element of $A$ .

Types of Sets:

Finite Set: A set with a limited number of elements.
Example:
Infinite Set: A set with an unlimited number of elements.
Example:
Subset: A set where all elements of one set are contained in another.
Example:
Universal Set: The set that contains all objects under consideration, usually denoted by .
Empty Set (Null Set): A set that contains no elements, denoted by
Example:
Power Set: The set of all subsets of a set, including the empty set and the set itself.
Example: Power set of is
Equal Sets: Two sets are equal if they have exactly the same elements.
Example:
Union of Sets: The set containing all elements from both sets. A={1,2,3) & B={2,4,6)
Example:
Intersection of Sets: The set containing only elements common to both sets.
Example:

Applications of Sets:

Engineering:

Sets are crucial in computer science, particularly in the development of algorithms, data structures, and databases. Engineers also use sets to model systems, solve optimization problems, and perform operations like union and intersection for network analysis and circuit design.

Mathematics:

In mathematics, sets form the foundation for various concepts such as probability, calculus, and geometry. Set theory is used in solving complex problems, formulating proofs, and understanding functions.

Economics:

Sets help in analyzing data, consumer behavior, and market segmentation. Economists use sets to categorize and analyze different populations and to study the overlap and intersection of markets.

Physics:

In physics, sets are applied in quantum mechanics and relativity theory. Sets describe physical quantities, particle systems, and the union of various physical states.

Computer Science:

In programming, sets are used to manage collections of data, solve problems related to databases, and execute operations such as searching, sorting, and filtering.

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Complex Numbers:

Definition, Operations, and Applications

Complex numbers extend the concept of real numbers to include solutions to equations that do not have real solutions, such as the square root of negative numbers. They are essential in various fields of mathematics and engineering.

Definition

A complex number is a number of the form:

$z = a + bi$

where:

$a$ is the real part of the complex number,
$b$ is the imaginary part,
$i$ is the imaginary unit, defined as $i = \sqrt{-1}$ .

For example, in the complex number $3 + 4i$ , $3$ is the real part and $4$ is the imaginary part.

Basic Operations

1. Addition: To add two complex numbers, add their real parts and imaginary parts separately.

$(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i$

2. Subtraction: To subtract two complex numbers, subtract their real parts and imaginary parts separately.

$(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i$

3. Multiplication: To multiply two complex numbers, use the distributive property and apply the fact that $i^2 = -1$ .

$(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i$

4. Division: To divide two complex numbers, multiply the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.

$\frac{a + bi}{c + di} = \frac{(a + bi)(c - di)}{c^2 + d^2} = \frac{(ac + bd) + (bc - ad)i}{c^2 + d^2}$

5. Conjugate: The conjugate of a complex number $a + bi$ is $a - bi$ . Conjugates are useful in division and finding magnitudes.

$Conjugate of (a + bi) = a - bi$

6. Magnitude: The magnitude (or modulus) of a complex number $a + bi$ is given by:

$|a + bi| = \sqrt{a^2 + b^2}$

7. Argument: The argument (or angle) of a complex number $a + bi$ is the angle $\theta$ such that:

$\theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{b}{a}\right)$

Polar Form of Complex Numbers

A complex number can be represented in the form

$z = a + bi$

, where $a$ is the real part of the complex number,
$b$ is the imaginary part,
$i$ is the imaginary unit, defined as $i = \sqrt{-1}$ .

A complex number $z$ can be expressed in polar form as:

$z = r \left( \cos \theta + i \sin \theta \right)$

where $r$ is the magnitude (or modulus) of the complex number, given by

$r = |z| = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$

and $\theta$ is the argument (or angle) of the complex number, measured from the positive $x$ -axis, given by

$\theta = \arg(z) = \tan^{-1} \left( \frac{y}{x} \right)$

Euler’s Form of Complex Numbers

Euler’s formula relates complex exponentials to trigonometric functions:

Alternatively, the polar form can also be written using Euler’s formula as:

$z = r e^{i \theta}$

This is a more compact and elegant way of expressing the polar form. Here,

$e^{i \theta}$

represents the complex exponential, and $\theta$ is the argument of the complex number. This form is particularly useful for multiplication, division, and finding powers and roots of complex numbers.

Examples 1:

Convert

$z = 3 + 4i$

into Polar & Euler’s For

To convert into polar form:

Magnitude:

$r = \sqrt{3^2 + 4^2} = 5$

The argument $\theta$ is:

$\theta = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{4}{3}\right) \approx 53.13^\circ$

Thus, the polar form is:

$z = 5 \left(\cos{53.13^\circ} + i \sin{53.13^\circ}\right)$

In Euler’s form:

$z = 5 e^{i 53.13^\circ}$

Examples 2:

Convert

$z = -1 + i$

into Polar & Euler’s For

To convert into polar form:

Magnitude:

$r = \sqrt{-1^2 + 1^2} = \sqrt{2}$

Argument:

$\theta = \tan^{-1}(1 / -1) = 135^\circ \, \text{or} \, \pi=\ - \frac{\pi}{4}$

Polar form:

$z = \sqrt{2} (\cos{135^\circ} + i \sin{135^\circ})$

Euler’s Form

$z = \sqrt{2} e^{i 135^\circ}$

Derivation of Euler’s Form:

Euler’s form of a complex number provides a powerful and elegant way to represent complex numbers using exponential functions. Here’s a step-by-step explanation of Euler’s form and how it is derived from the polar form using the expansions of cosine and sine.

Euler’s Form of a Complex Number

Euler’s form of a complex number $z$ is given by:

$z = r e^{i \theta}$

where:

$r$ is the magnitude of the complex number.
$\theta$ is the argument (angle) of the complex number.
$e^{i\theta}$ is the exponential function involving the imaginary unit $i$ .

Derivation from Polar Form

Start with the Polar Form:The polar form of a complex number $z$ is expressed as:

$z=r(cos⁡θ+isin⁡θ)$

where:

- $r$ is the magnitude of the complex number.
- $\theta$ is the argument or angle.

Use Euler’s Formula:Euler’s formula states that:

$z = cos⁡θ+isin⁡θ$

is equal

$z = e^{i\theta}$

This is a fundamental result in complex analysis and connects exponential functions with trigonometric functions.

Substitute Euler’s Formula into the Polar Form:

To express the polar form in terms of Euler’s formula, substitute Euler’s formula into the polar form expression:

$z=r(cos⁡θ+isin⁡θ)$

can be written as:

$z = r e^{i\theta}$

This substitution uses the fact that

$e^{i\theta}$

can be expanded as

$cos{\theta} + i \sin{\theta}$

Expansion of Cosine and Sine

To see this more clearly, let’s expand

$e^{i\theta}$

using its Taylor series:

- Taylor Series for $e^{i\theta}$
  :

$e^{i\theta} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{(i\theta)^n}{n!}$

Expanding

$(i\theta)^n$

$i^n\theta^n$

So:

$e^{i\theta} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{i^n\theta^n}{n!}$

Separate Real and Imaginary Parts:

To separate the real and imaginary parts, recall that:

$i^n = \begin{cases} 1 \quad \text{if } n \mod 4 = 0 \\ i \quad \text{if } n \mod 4 = 1 \\ -1 \quad \text{if } n \mod 4 = 2 \\ -i \quad \text{if } n \mod 4 = 3 \end{cases}$

Grouping terms:

Real Part:

$\text{Re}(e^{i\theta}) = \sum_{\text{n even}} \frac{(-1)^{n/2} \theta^n}{n!} = \cos{\theta}$

Imaginary Part:

$\text{Im}(e^{i\theta}) = \sum_{\text{n odd}} \frac{(-1)^{(n-1)/2} \theta^n}{n!} = \sin{\theta}$

Hence, combining these:

$e^{i\theta} = \cos{\theta} + i \sin{\theta}$

WorkSheets On Complex Number

Convert Cartesian form into Polar & Euler’s Form

Convert $z = 2 + 3i$ into polar form.
Convert $z=−4+5i$ into Euler’s form.
Find the polar form of $z=5+12i$ .
Convert $z=−6+8i$ to Euler’s form.
Express $z=1+i$ in polar form.
Find the Euler’s form of $z=−3+4i$ .
Convert $z=−2−3i$ into polar form.
Convert $z=7−5i$ to Euler’s form.
Express $z=8+6i$ in polar form.
Find the polar form of $z=9+7i$ .
Convert $z=−3+3i$ to Euler’s form.
Express $z=4−4i$ in polar form.
Find the polar form of $z=−5−2i$ .
Convert $z=6+2i$ into Euler’s form.
Express $z=−2+6i$ in polar form.

Convert Polar & Euler’s form into Cartesian Form

$z = 4(\cos 30^\circ + i \sin 30^\circ)$ , convert to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 6e^{i\frac{\pi}{6}}$ into Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 5(\cos 60^\circ + i \sin 60^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 7e^{i\frac{\pi}{4}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 3(\cos 45^\circ + i \sin 45^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 2e^{i\frac{\pi}{3}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 8(\cos 90^\circ + i \sin 90^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 10e^{i\frac{\pi}{2}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 12(\cos 135^\circ + i \sin 135^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 4e^{i\frac{\pi}{4}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 9(\cos 120^\circ + i \sin 120^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 5e^{i\frac{\pi}{3}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 6(\cos 150^\circ + i \sin 150^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 7e^{i\frac{5\pi}{6}}$ to Cartesian form.
Convert $z = 8(\cos 180^\circ + i \sin 180^\circ)$ to Cartesian form.

Applications

1. Engineering:

Complex numbers are used in electrical engineering to analyze AC circuits, where they represent impedance and phase relationships. They simplify the analysis of alternating current (AC) signals and circuits.

2. Control Systems:

In control theory, complex numbers are used to describe system dynamics and stability. The poles and zeros of transfer functions are complex numbers that help in designing and analyzing control systems.

3. Signal Processing:

Complex numbers are employed in signal processing to handle frequency domain analysis. Fourier transforms and filters often use complex numbers to analyze and manipulate signals.

4. Physics:

Complex numbers are essential in quantum mechanics, where they describe wave functions and probability amplitudes. The Schrödinger equation, a fundamental equation in quantum mechanics, uses complex numbers.

5. Mathematics:

Complex numbers are used in various branches of mathematics, including complex analysis, which studies functions of complex variables. They also appear in solutions to polynomial equations and many areas of applied mathematics.

6. Computer Graphics:

In computer graphics, complex numbers are used for transformations and rotations. They help in manipulating images and performing geometric transformations efficiently.

Complex numbers provide a powerful framework for solving problems that cannot be addressed with real numbers alone, making them an indispensable tool in mathematics and engineering.

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Introduction to Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is a second-degree polynomial equation in a single variable $x$ , with the general form:

$ax^2 + bx + c = 0$ where $a$ , $b$ , and $c$ are constants, and $a \neq 0$ . The term “quadratic” comes from “quad,” meaning square, since the highest exponent of the variable is $2$ .

Uses and Applications of Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations are used in various fields, including:

Physics: To describe projectile motion, the trajectory of an object can be modeled using quadratic equations.

Engineering: In structural engineering, quadratic equations help calculate loads, tensions, and forces.

Economics: They are used in cost, profit, and revenue functions, particularly in finding maximum or minimum values.

Biology: Quadratic equations help model population growth, the spread of diseases, or other natural phenomena.
Geometry: These equations are used in determining areas, and for working with parabolas and ellipses.

Quadratic Expressions and Quadratic Equations

Method of Solving Quadratic Expressions $ax^2+bx+c$ , $a \neq 0$

1.Factorisation Method:

The goal is to express the quadratic expression in the form of two binomials:

$ax^2 + bx + c = (px + q)(rx + s)$

where $p, q, r,$ and $s$ are constants, and the equation is solved by finding appropriate factors of $a \times c$ .

2. Completing the Square Method:

To solve the quadratic expression, we can complete the square as follows:

$ax^2 + bx + c = a\left( x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x \right) + c$

The next step is to add and subtract a term to make a perfect square trinomial:

$x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x + \left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2 - \left( \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2$

After simplifying, we can rewrite it as:

$\left( x + \frac{b}{2a} \right)^2 - \text{constant}$

3. Quadratic Formula:

The quadratic formula is:

$x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$

This method can be used for any quadratic equation to find its roots directly.

Factorisation Based on the Value of $a$ and the Sign of $c$

In solving quadratic equations, it is important to consider the value of $a$ and the sign of $c$ .

CASE 1:

If $a = 1$ , we check the sign of $c$ .

If $c$ is positive, both factors have the same sign as $b$ , and their sum equals $b$ .

Example:

$x^2 + 7x + 12 = 0$

First, find factors of $12$ :

$(1, 12), (2, 6), (3, 4)$

Since $3 + 4 = 7$ , we split $7x$ into $3x$ and $4x$ , so the equation becomes:

$x^2 + 3x + 4x + 12 = 0$

Now, factor:

$x(x + 3) + 4(x + 3) = 0$

Thus:

$(x + 3)(x + 4) = 0$

Setting each factor equal to zero:

$x + 3 = 0 \quad \text{or} \quad x + 4 = 0$

So, the solutions are:

$x = -3 \quad \text{and} \quad x = -4$

Similarly we can solve $x^2 - 7x +12 =0$

Case II:

if $c$ is negative, factors subtracted and have different signs, the large factor keep the sign of $b$ .

for example $x^2 - x -12$ , in this case we need to find the factors of $12$ , which when subtracted give us $-1$ , so again the difference of $4$ and $3$ is $1$ , but we put $-$ sign with $4$ nd split $-x$ as $-4x and + 3x$ . now the equation becomes

$x^2 -4x + 3x -12$

$(x -4)(x +3)$

$x-4 =0$ and $x+3=0$

therefore the solution of the above equation are $+4$ and $-3$ .

If $a \neq 0$

we first multiply $a$ and $c$ and the factorize the value of $ac$ , repeat the case I and case II accordingly.

Quadratic Equation Questions

1. Solve the quadratic equation: $x^2 - 4x - 5 = 0$ .
2. Solve the quadratic equation: $2x^2 + 3x - 2 = 0$ .
3. Find the roots of $x^2 - 9 = 0$ .
4. Factor and solve: $x^2 + 6x + 9 = 0$ .
5. Solve for $x$ : $3x^2 - 2x - 8 = 0$ .
6. What are the solutions to $x^2 + 4x + 4 = 0$ ?
7. Solve by completing the square: $x^2 - 6x + 5 = 0$ .
8. Use the quadratic formula to solve: $x^2 - 7x + 10 = 0$ .
9. Solve the equation: $4x^2 - 12x + 9 = 0$ .
10. Solve $x^2 + 8x + 16 = 0$ by factoring.
11. Solve $x^2 - 2x - 3 = 0$ using the quadratic formula.
12. Find the roots of $5x^2 - 20x + 15 = 0$ .
13. Solve $3x^2 + 2x - 8 = 0$ by completing the square.
14. Factor and solve $x^2 - 16 = 0$ .
15. Solve $6x^2 - x - 1 = 0$ using the quadratic formula.
16. Solve for $x$ : $x^2 + 5x + 6 = 0$ .
17. Find the solutions to $x^2 - 25 = 0$ .
18. Solve $7x^2 + 14x + 7 = 0$ by factoring.
19. What are the roots of $9x^2 - 24x + 16 = 0$ ?
20. Solve $2x^2 - 10x + 12 = 0$ using the quadratic formula.

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Methods Of Solving System of Two Linear Equations

solving a system of two linear equations. There are three main methods to solve such systems:

Substitution,
Elimination, and
Graphical Method.
Matrix Method

Substitution Method

Explanation:
In the substitution method, we solve one equation for one variable and substitute that expression into the other equation to find the value of the second variable.

Steps:

Solve one equation for one variable in terms of the other (e.g., solve for
$𝑥 or 𝑦$ .
Substitute the expression into the other equation.
Solve for the second variable.
Use this value to find the first variable.

Example:
Solve the system of equations:

$\begin{align*} x + y &= 7 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 2x - y &= 4 \quad \text{......(2)}\\ \end{align*}$

Step 1: Solve equation $1$ for $y$ :

$\begin{align*}y &= 7 - x \quad\text{......(3)}\\ \end{align*}$

Step 2: Substitute $y &= 7 - x$ into equation $(2)$

$\begin{align*}2x-(7-x) &= 4\\ \end{align*}$

Step 3: Solve for $x$ :

$\begin{align*}2x-7+x &= 4\\ 3x - 7 &= 4 \\ 3x &= 11 \\ x &= \frac{11}{3} \end{align*}$

Step 4: Put the value of $x$ in eq $(1)$

$\begin{align*}x+y &= 7\\ y+ \frac{11}{3}&=7\\ y &= 7 - \frac{11}{3}\\ y &= \frac{10}{3} \end{align*}$

The solution is:

$\begin{align*}x &= \frac{11}{3}\\ y&=\frac{10}{3}\\ \end{align*}$

Substitution Method: 10 Practice Questions

$\begin{align*} 2x + y &= 5 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ x - y &= 1 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} x + 3y &= 7 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 2x - y &= 4 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} x + y &= 3 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ x - 3y &= 5 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} x + y &= 3 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 3x + y &= 9 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} 4x + y &= 10 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 2x - y &= 3 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} x + 2y &= 8 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 3x - y &= 7 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} 5x - y &= 11 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 2x + y &= 4 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} x + y &= 6 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ 4x - y &= 9 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} 3x - 2y &= 5 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ x + y &= 4 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} 2x + 3y &= 12 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ x - y &= 2 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

$\begin{align*} 4x - y &= 2 \quad \text{......(1)} \\ x + 2y &= 5 \quad \text{......(2)} \end{align*}$

Continue reading Mathematics Notes →

MA Economics papers

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MA Economics Papers list:

Micro Economics Paper (I)

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Public Finance Paper (II)

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Advance Economics Statistics (III)

1999 Advance Economics Statistics

2000 Advance Economics Statistics

2001 Advance Economics Statistics

2002 Advance Economics Statistics

2003 Advance Economics Statistics

2004 Advance Economics Statistics

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Economics of Planning

Paper (IV)

1999 Economics of Planning

2000 Economics of Planning

2001 Economics of Planning

2002 Economics of Planning

2003 Economics of Planning

2004 Economics of Planning

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

National Income Analysis & Accounting (V-B)

1999 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2000 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2001 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2002 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2003 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2004 National Income Analysis & Accounting

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Agricultural Economics Paper (V-A)

1999 Agricultural Economics

2000 Agricultural Economics

2001 Agricultural Economics

2002 Agricultural Economics

2003 Agricultural Economics

2004 Agricultural Economics

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Mathematical Economics

Paper (V-C)

1999 Mathematical Economics

2000 Mathematical Economics

2001 Mathematical Economics

2002 Mathematical Economics

2003 Mathematical Economics

2004 Mathematical Economics

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Comparative

Economics (V-D)

1999 Comparative Economics

2000 Comparative Economics

2001 Comparative Economics

2002 Comparative Economics

2003 Comparative Economics

2004 Comparative Economics

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Economics of Islam (V-E)

1999 Economics of Islam

2000 Economics of Islam

2001 Economics of Islam

2002 Economics of Islam

2003 Economics of Islam

2004 Economics of Islam

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

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Similarities in Research and Inquiry

As such, history and science belong to the same kind of knowledge. Both are a kind of research or inquiry in their own way.

The Nature of Science :

Science consists of forms of thought by which it asks questions and tries to answer them.

Facts and Discovery in Science:

There are some important facts about science which we must know and understand. It is a common belief that science collects known facts and arranges them in suitable groups. But this is only one of its many aspects. Basically, science seizes upon unknown things and tries to discover them. If playing patience with known facts does not give answers to our questions, it is not scientifically valuable.

Purpose of Science:

It can be scientifically valuable only when it serves as a means towards the inquiry and discovery of unknown things that we wish to inquire and discover. This is the essential end and purpose of science. In this way, science begins from the knowledge of our ignorance. It starts from an understanding of our own lack of knowledge. Only when we know fully well that we do not know a particular thing, we fasten upon it and try to know it. This particular unknown thing may be the origin of parliament, the causes of cancer, the chemical composition of the sun, or the way to make a pump work without the help of human or animal energy. Thus, unknown things turn into known facts, and science grows.

History as a Science:

Science is about finding things out. In much the same way, history is also about finding things out. Therefore, history is a science.

What is the Object of Hisory?

All sciences differ from one another. One science finds out thing of one kind another science finds out things of another kinds.

Likewise, history finds out register or things that have been done. In other words history finds out past actions of human beings who lived in the past.

This statement gives rise to a large variety of questions. Conflicting views are expressed about many of them.

As such they may be answered in a large variety of ways. Never less, history all along remains the science of register. It is always an effort to find out answers to questions about past activities of human beings who lived in the past.

No one can refute this statement. No one can prove it wrong.

How Does History Proceed?

In other words it means how is the procedure or method which help history grow from age to age.

Obviously, the growth of history depends entirely upon the interpretation of evidence.

To be more explicit, interpretation of evidence is the explanation of the full meaning and significance of the evidence in question.

In the case of history evidence is made of a number of things which we meet here and there, now and then, taken up together.

These we may call documents. These documents, or rather historical documents to be more exact are of such nature that if history studies them, it finds answers to its questions about past human actions.

A large number of questions can be asked about the characteristics of evidence and the ways to interpret it. Needless to say, these questions are much too early and out of the place to ask at this junction.

However, ther are different ways to answer them.

But the procedure or method of history remains basically composed of interpretation of evidence, all the same.

By no stretch of imagination can there be any two opinions about this statement among historians.

Lastly, What is History For?

This is perhaps the toughest question of all the four. It will be difficult to answer them.

One will have to cover a wider field to find an answer for the question. Various aspects of history will have taken into account.

At the same time, various other aspects of a rather general nature will have taken into account as well.

When we say that something is ‘for’ something, we mean that there is a marked difference between the two which distinguished one from the other as separate.

Simple logic can explain the truth of this statement. If we distinctly separate things. We clearly see that A is the thing which is good for B, while B is the thing for which A is good.

Obviously the two are not the same. Instead, they are rather different. Here I give the answer to the question and hoping that the historians answer will accept answers.

However, I believe that it will lead to a host of hard questions. The answer is “History is for human self-knowledge, In other words this means that history helps man to know and understand himself, most of us think that the more we know ourselves, the better it is.

Self-knowledge always stands us in good stead.

The Character Of Happy Life

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The Character of Happy Life

By Sir Henry WontonSir Henry Wonton:

Sir Henry Wonton was a distinguished poet, scholar and diplomat. He had an eventful of rewards and hazards of public life, which, however, found a tranquil, close in his last days. Writing from his personal experience, he contributed a rich share to the English poetic literature of his time.

The Poem: ‘The Character of Happy Life’ is a lovely little poem written by Sir Henry Wonton. It is concerned with the life and virtues of a good man. Also It is deeply religious in spirit and simple but dignified in expression. Finally It lays emphasis not only on the promise of a heavenly reward but also on the enjoyment of a sever life of peaceful virtue on this search. As such, Walton’s virtues man gets the best of both the words. A sharp sense of contrast, between the uneasy life of an ambitious man and the contended life of a man satisfied with his obscurity, runs right through his poem. Writing from his personal experience, he wishes to tell us that rewards of ambitious life were very dazzling indeed, but its anxieties and dangers were also all too real.

Context: These lines are from the poem, ‘The Character of a Happy Life’ written by Sir Henry Wonton. It tells us about the qualities essential for a truly happy life.

Explanation:

Indepencdence, Honesty of thought and Truthfulness

(1): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are independence, honesty of thought and truthfulness. He has not learnt to be the slave of others. He is upright in all his thoughts actions. His honesty shields him from all dangers. He believes only in pure, simple truth. It guides him in the day-to-day affairs of his life. Naturally therefore, he enjoys the blessings of real happiness.

Self-control and freedom from worldly ambitions

(2): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are self-control and freedom from worldly ambitions. He is not the slave of his derives and passions. He does not fear death; the world is not too much with him. So he does not have any anxieties, either. He does not care for fame or fortune. As such he does not worry in the least, for what people say about him in private. Naturally, therefore, he enjoys the blessings of real happiness.

Freedom from Envy, Dislike for Praise:

(3): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are freedom from envy of worldly success, dislike for praise and diplomacy and love for virtue and goodness. He does not envy anybody who has risen to high position by the stroke of good fortune or through his own wickedness. He does not seek praise for it corrupts character and provokes the enmity of the envious. However, insincere praise may be ironic or mocking. So he is totally unaware of the wounds inflicted by praise. His strong ignorant of the principles of statecraft. All that he knows and understands is absolute goodness. He hears no evil, he sees not evil, he speaks no evil and he does no evil. Naturally, therefore, he enjoys the blessing of real happiness.

Freedom from rumors, care for his conscience

(4): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are freedom from rumors, care for his conscience and lack of wealth and position. He keeps his life free from all kinds of rumors. He listens only to the inner voice of his conscience. As his sincere guide, it is a strong hold, which shelters him from all kinds of evils. The world is not too much with him. So his state is not so great that it can feel flatters or tempt people to accuse him and help them to plunder him when he in ruined. Naturally, therefore, he enjoys the blessings of real happiness.

Happy man are piety and simple life

(5): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are piety and simple life. He worshiped God with sincere devotion. He does not pray for worldly things. Instead, he prays for His kindness and mercy only. He spends his innocent life in plain living and high thinking which is his motto. He either studies good books or sits in the company of noble friends. Naturally, therefore, he enjoys the blessings of real happiness.

Independence , Povert and Contentment

(6): The poet says that the characteristics of a happy man are independence, poverty of contentment. He is the slave neither of another’s will nor of his own passions. Indeed he is his own master. The world is not too much with him. He has no desire for wealth or worldly cares; he leads an obscure life of peaceful virtue. As much, he has no fear of a downfall either. True he has no riches, but he has happiness, is the greatest wealth a man can have. Naturally, therefore, he enjoys the blessings of a truly real happiness.

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